Factors that affect the amount of oxygen dissolved

factors that affect the amount of oxygen dissolve in water:

1. 
   
   Temperature: Warm water has less ability to hold oxygen than cold water.
2. 
   
   Photosynthesis: In bright light plants produce more oxygen.
3. 
   
   Recomposition Activity: As organic material decompose it takes oxygen out of the water.
4. 
   
   Mixing and Turbulence: Places of high turbulence like waterfalls, rapids and wave action increase the amount of oxygen concentration.
5. 
   
   Salinity: Salty water ability to hold oxygen is less than clear water.

 Procedures

1. 
   
   fill seven bottles with algae-rich culture.
2. 
   
   seal the bottles with caps to prevent air.
3. 
   
   write the % of light that the sample will received.
4. 
   
   wrap bottles in foil or screen.
5. 
   
   test the DO of the initial bottle.
6. 
   
   place the remaining bottles on their side in a tray under a fluorescent light for 24 hours. 

• 
  
  Purpose - monitor the effect of varying light levels on dissolve oxygen in an algae-rich culture. Also to see how the dark affect the state of photosynthesis.
• 
  
  Result  - photosynthesis is efficient or able to happen in light places, but in the dark photosynthesis is not able to happen.

  Differences ans Similarities between Eukaryote  and  Prokaryotic Cells
                      

The differences between Eukaryote and Prokarytic cell are mostly due to the size complexity differences between the two cell types.However, the cell types still share same similarities. Scientist have suggested that the cells are similar because Eukaryotes may evolved from Prokaryotes.

Differences:

1. Eukaryotic cells are much larger and more complex.
2. Prokarytic cells do not have nucleus, while Eukarytic cells do. (Eukarytic cell are large enough that they need a nucleus to keep genetic activities close together and increase efficiency. But Prokarytic cells have a nucleoid were the genetic activity occurs.
3. Eukayrtic DNA is linear and also organize into chromosomes and is complexes with specialized proteins called histones while Prokarytic DNA is circular  and it donot have histones proteins and also it's DNA does not form chromosomes.
4. Eukaryotic Ribosomes are larger than Prokaryotic Ribosomes.
5. Prokaryotes cytoplasm does not have organells.

Similaritis:

1. Enclosed by  plasma membrane.
2. Contain ribosomes.
3. Have DNA.
4. Filled with cytoplasm.

Examples:

• E.coli, Lactobacillus and salmonella are Prokaryotes organism.
• Amoeba, Paramecium and Euglena are Eukaryotes organism.

The four types of cellurlar respiration

THE FOUR TYPES OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION

DIFFUSION: the process by which molecules 

spread from areas of high concentration, areas to low concentration. And some times molecules rich equilibrium. Example: oxygen diffuses from the air sacs in your lungs into your blood capillaries because the concentration of oxygen

is higher in the air sacs and lower in the capillary blood.

OSMOSIS: is the passage of water from

OSMOSIS

a region of high waterconcentracion through

a semi-premeable membrane a region of

low water concentration. Example: osmosis
transfers water through the plasma membrane
of a cell it manage the amount the of water, glucose
and salt in the body cell to stay alive.

FACILIATED DIFFUSION: is the process were substances

passess through a membrane with a aid of a facilitator
that is an internal membrane protein that spans
the width of the membrane. Example: liver cells
 which controls the concentration of glucose in the blood. Live cells
store excess glucose as glycogen when blood sugar levels are high(after a high carbogydrated meal) and then breakdown the glycogen as glucose-1-phosphated which is converted to glucose-6-phosphate which is finally converted to free glucose.

ACTIVE TRANSPORT: is a system that uses ATP

as an energy source to transport molecules against a

concentration gradient. Example: Na+/K+ ATPase. This membrane protein transporter moves NA+ out of the cell and K+ into the cell, building up high NA+ outside

and high K+ inside the cells.

Passive transport does not require energy input to transfer material between the cell membrane. While active transport does. Passive transport usually transport from ares of high concentration to low concentration, while active transport moves material from areas of low concentration to areas of high concentration. Also active transport and passive transport are two very important process in the cell because is what controls what enters and what leaves the cell; so is  essential to maintain the cell alive.

The characteristics essential for life of a cell

Cell:

• organism have everything they need to be self sufficient.
• in multicelular organism, specialization until some cells do certain things.

Organization:

• Both molecular and cellular organization.
• Living things must be able to organize simple substances into complex ones.
• Living cells organize living things at different levels: 

• 
  
  Tissue:a group of cells that perform a common function.
• 
  
  Organs:a group of tissues that perform a common function.
• 
  
  Organs system: a group of organs that perform a common function
• 
  
  Organism: any complete living thing.

Energy use:

• 
  
  living things take energy and used for maintenance and growth.
• 
  
  living things used their energy in a specific amount and way to get their need in order to equally distributed it.
• 
  
  sunlight is converted to pothosynthesis that is  main way of energy source.

Homeostasis:

• 
  
  Living things will make changes in response of a stimulus in their environment.
• 
  
  A behavior is a complex set of  responses.

Grow:

• 
  
  cell division: the orderly formation of cells.
• 
  
  cell enlargement:the increase in size in a cell. Cells grow to a certain size and then divide.
• 
  
  An organism gets larger as its number of cell increases.

Reproduction:

• 
  
  Reproduction is not essential for the survival of an individual organism, but must occur for a species to survive.
• 
  
  All living things reproduce in one of the following ways:
• 
  
  Asexual reproduction-producing offspring with out the used of gametes.
• 
  
  sexual reproduction:producing offspring with the joining of sex cells.

Examples of viruses, prions and viroids

viruses: the Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV), the T4 bacteriophage, and the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).
Examples:

1. Tobacco Mosaic Virus(TMV):consist of a single RNA molecule(6000 nucleotides) enclosed in a cylindrical protein coat (2130 copies of the same coat protein). It is approximately 300 nanometers long and 15 nanometers wide.
2. T4 Bacteriophage: consists of a DNA molecule tightly packed in a protein head. The virus attaches to the surface of a bacterial cell and injects its DNA into the cell through its tail.
3. Human Immunodeficiancy Virus(HIV):consists of a outer lipid envelope derive from the host cell. It is retrovirus, i.e., an RNA-containing virus that replicates by making DNA intermediated.

Prions: A pion a protein found in the brain
of mammels that when is misfolded is belived

to cause various infectious diseases of the nervous system like bovine spongiform

encephalophaty in cattle and scrapie in sheep.

Examples:

1. 
   
   Creutzfeldt- Jakob Disease (CJD; humans)
2. 
   
   variant creutzfeldt-Disease (vCJD; humans, acquired from cattle with BSE)
3. 
   
   Bovine spongiform Encephalophaty (BSE, a.k.a. mad cow disease)
4. 
   
   Chronic Wasting disease (CWD; elk, deer)

Viroids: or virusoid, the smallest of viruses;

 a plant virus with its RNA arranged in a circular

chromosome without a protein coat. It may cause

disease by binding to a host RNA (7S RNA) that

 is part of the protein translocation machinery so

that the abnormal membrane are produce.

Examples:

1. 
   
   Potato spindle tuber viroid- firs viroid discover in (1967)
2. 
   
   Coconut cadang-cadang viroid-small(246 bases)but most virulent.

Viruses, Prions and viroids are not considered to be living organism because they are incapable of carrying out all life process. the factors that distinguish them as not living things are:

• are not made of cells
• cannot reproduce on their own
• do not grow or undergo division
• do not transform energy
• lack machinery for proteins synthesis
• are very small that can only be seen with an electron microscope

                                                                                                     

Compare and contrast Catabolic an Ansbolic reactions


Catabolic reaction: the metabolic breakdown of complex

molecules into simpler one, often resulting in a release of energy.        

Anabolic reaction: anabolism, or biosynthesis, is the process by which living organism synthesize complex molecules of life from simpler ones.

Catabolic and Anabolic reactions are metabolic process. A Catabolic reaction reaction is one that breaks down large molecules to produce energy an example: is digestion. An Anabolic reaction is one that involves creating large molecules out of smaller molecules an example: is when your body makes fats out of an extra nutrients you eat.

Components of the Cell Cycle and Interphase, Mitosis components

Cell Cycle

Interphase

The cell is engaged in metabolic activity and performing its prepare for mitosis. Chromosomes are not clearly discerned in the nucleus, although a dark spot called the nucleolus may be visible. The cell may contain a pair of centroids (or microtubule organizing centers in plants) both which are organizational sites for microtubules.

G1 phase. Metabolic changes prepared the cell for division. At a certain point-the restriction point-the cell is committed to division and moves into the S phase.

S phase.DNA synthesis replicates the genetic material. Each chromosomes now consists of two

sister chromatids.

G2 phase. Metabolic changes assemble the cytoplasmic materials necessary for mitosis and cytokinesis this process is also known as interphase.

M phase. A nuclear division(mitosis)followed by a cell division(cytokinesis).



Mitosis: After preparation is complete, the cell

enter the 4-phased mitosis, Phophase, Prometaphase,

 Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase.  




Phophase

Chromatin in the nucleus begin to condense and becomes visible in the

light microscope as chromosomes. The nucleolus disappears. Centroles

begin moving to opposite ends of the cell and fiber extend from to the centroids.

Some fibers cross the cell to form the mitotic spindle.

Prometaphase

The nuclear membrane dissolves, making the beginning of the prometaphase.
proteins attach to the centromeres creating the kinetochores. Microtubules attach to the kinetochores and the chromosomes begin moving.

Metaphase

Sprindle fibers align the chromosomes along the middle of the cell nucleus.

This line is referred to as the metephase plate. This organization helps to ensure

that in the next phase, when the chromosomes are separated, each new nucleus will

receive one copy of each chromosome.

Anaphase

The paired chromosomes separated at the kinetochores and move to opposite sides of the cell. Motion results from a combination of kinetochores movement along the spindle microtubules and through the physical interaction of polar microtubules.




Telophase

Chromatids arrive at opposite poles of the cell, and new membranes form
around the daughter nuclei. The chromosomes disperse and no longer visible under the light microscope. The spindle fiber disperse, and kytokinesis or the partionig of the cell may also begin under this stage.

Cytokinesis

In animal cell cytokinesis results when a fiber ring composed of protein

called acting around the center of the cell contracts pinching the cell in two

daughter cells, each with one nucleus. In plant cells, the rigid wall requires

that a cell plate by synthesized between the two daughter cells.

                                                                                        

Compare and contrast Mitosis and binary fission

Binary Fission a form of sexual reproduction in a single cell organism (usually Prokarytes), the cell divides into two, (equal usually) offspring Examples: Scherichia coli, Yersinia pestis, and all  bacteria . While Mitosis divides the cell nucleus into two replicated daughter cells. Example:Skin healing, growing, and cancer.

Compared and contrats Mitosis and meiosis

Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis

Compared and contrast DNA and RNA

DNA is a polymer. The monomer units of DNA are nucleotides, and the polymer is know as a ''polynucleotide''. Each nucleotide consist of a 5 carbon sugar (deoxyribose) , a nitrogen containing a base attached to the sugar, and a phosphate group. There are four different types of nucleotides found in DNA, differing only in the nitrogenous base. The four nucleotides are given one letter abbreviation as shorthand for the four bases.

• 
  
  A is for Adenine
• 
  
  G is for Guanine
• 
  
  C is for Cytosine
• 
  
  T is fro Thymine

Purine Bases

• 
  
  Adenine and Guanine are purines the largest bases of DNA.

    Structure of A and G

The 9 atoms that make up the fused rings (5 Carbon, 4 nitrogen) are numbered 1-9. All rings atoms lie in the same plane.

Pyrimidine Bases

• 
  
  Cytosine and Thymine are pyrimidines. The 6 atoms, (4 carbon, 2 nitrogen) are numbered 1-6 . Like purines, all pyrimidines ring atoms lie in the same plane.

    Structure of T and C

Deoxyribose Sugar

The deoxyribose sugar of DNA backbone has 5 carbons and 3 oxygen's. The carbon atoms are numbered 1', 2', 3', 4' and 5' to distinguish from the numbering of the atoms of purine and pyrimidine rings. The hydroxyl group on the 5'- and 3'- carbons link to the phosphate group to form the DNA backbone. Deoxyribose lacks an hydroxyl group at the 2'- position when compared to ribose, the sugar component of RNA.

    Structure of Deoxyribose

Nucleotides

 A nucleotide is one of the four DNA bases covalently attach to the C'1 position of a sugar. Th sugar in deoxynucleoside is 2'-dioxyribose. The sugar in the nucleotide is ribose. Nucleotide differ from nucleotides in that they lack phosphate groups. The four different nucleotides of DNA are deoxyadenosine (dA), deoxyguanosine (dG), deoxycytosine (dC), and (deoxy) Thymidine (dT or T ).

Structure of dA

In dA and dG, there is an ''N-glycoside'' bond between the sugar C1' and N9 of the purine.

A nucleotide is a nucleotide with one or more phosphate groups covalently attach to the 3'-and/or 5' hydroxyl group(s).

RNA

Most RNA cellular molecules are single stranded.they may form secondary structures such as stem-loop and hairpin. 

Secondary structure or RNA. (a) Stem-loop (b) hairpin

The main role of RNA is to participated in protein synthesis, which requires three classes of RNA:

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

Other classes of RNA include:

Ribosomes

The RNA molecule with catalytic activity.

Small RNA molecules

RNA interference and another functions.

DNA Replicaiton

The Biochemical Reaction

• DNA replication begin with the ''unzipping'' of the parent molecule as the hydrogen bonds between the base pairs are broken.
• Ones expose, the sequence of the bases on each of the different stands serve as a template to guide the insertion of a complementary set of bases of the stand being synthesized.
• The new stands are assemble from deoxynucleoside triphosphates.
• Each incoming nucleotide is covalently linked to the ''Free'' 3' carbon atom on the pentose.
• The second and third phosphates are removed together as a molecule of pyrophosphate (PPI).
• The nucleotides are assembled in the order that complements the order of on the stand serving as the template.
• Thus, each C on the template guides the insertion of a G in the new stand, each G a C  and so on.
• when the process is complete two DNA molecules have being form identical to each other and to the parent molecule.

  

                                           

 The Enzymes

• A  portion of the double helix is unwound by helicase.
• A molecule of DNA polymerase binds to one stand of DNA and begins to move along it in the 3' to 5' direction, using it as template for assembling a leading stand of nucleotides and reforming a double helix. In eukaryote, this molecules is called DNA polymerase delta.
• Because DNA synthesis can only occur 3' to 5' a molecule of a second type of DNA polymerase. ( epsilon, 3, in eukaryotes ) binds to the other template strand as the double helix opens. This molecule must synthesize discontinuous segments of poly-nucleotides ( called Okazaki fragments). Another enzyme, DNA ligase 1 then stitches these together into the lagging strand.

                              

The process of transcription in Eukaryotic cell

Transcription, and Translation Eukaryotic cell

In Eukaryotic cell, transcription occurs in the nucleus and translation occurs in the cytoplasm. In Prokaryotic cell, transcription are coupled; that is, translation begins while the mRNA still is being synthesized.

      Eukaryotic cell                                      

Transcription and translation are partially separated in eukaryotic cell; transcription occurs in the nucleus to produce a pre-mRNA molecule.Transcription is the process in which DNA makes a copy of it self. Both DNA and RNA are nucleic acids, which use base of nucleotides as a complementary league to converted them self back and ford to RNA and DNA in the presence of the correct enzymes. During transcription, a DNA sequence is read by a RNA polymerase which, produce a complementary, anti parallel RNA stand. As opposite to RNA replication, transcription results in an RNA complement that includes Uracil (U) in all instances where Thymine (T) will occur in a DNA complement.

Transcription is the first step leading to gene expression. The sketch of DNA transcribed into a DNA molecule is called a transcription unit and end-codes at leats one gene. If the gene  transcribed end- codes for a protein, the result of transcription is messenger mRNA, which will then be used to created that protein in the process of translation.

             

   In Eukaryotic cell, mRNA synthesize in the nucleus and translated on ribosomes in the cytoplasm. 

          Translation

A protein-coding gene is transcribed into a pre-mRNA.                                                              

Pre-mRNA is process into a mature mRNA.

mRNA exits the nucleus.

mRNA is translated into to produce the polypeptide chain.

     

            Prokaryotic Cell

 

Because their is no nucleus to separate the processes of transcription and translation, when bacterial genes are transcribed their transcripts can  immediately be translated.

Contrasting and comparing an allele and a gene

A gene is a section of DNA which codes for certain characteristics such as height in humans. Genes, however can have variations. So, alleles are genes but with variations. For example, a short allele or a tall allele in a person will determine their height. Therefore, Alleles are different variations of genes. They are different sequences of bases in DNA that result in determining a single characteristic. They occur in pairs and can be classified as recessive or dominant.

Sex and Autosomes Chromosomes

Sex chromosomes determine the sex of an organism. A human somatic cell has two sex chromosomes: XY in males and XX in females. A human germ cell has one sex chromosome X or Y in a sperm and X in an egg. When X-sperm is combined with an egg, the resulting zygote (fertilize egg) will contain two  X chromosomes. A person developed from XX-zygote will have the characteristics of females. Combination of an Y-sperm and an egg will produce a male.

The SRY gene

Usually, a women has two X chromosomes (XX) and a men one X and one Y (XY). However both male and female can be characteristics can sometimes by found in one individual, and it is possible for a women to have XY and a men to have XX. Analysis of such individuals has revealed some of the molecules involved in sex determination, including one called that is very important for testing information.

SRY which stands for (sex determining region Y gene) Is found in the Y chromosome. In the cell, it binds to other DNA and in doing so distorts it dramatically out of shape. This alters the properties of DNA and likely alerts the expression of a number of genes, leading to testing formation. Most XX men who lack a Y chromosome do still have a copy of SRY gene on one of their X chromosomes (moved by a chromosomal trans-location) This copy accounts for their maleness. However, because the remainder of the Y chromosome is missing they frequently do not developed secondary sexual characteristics in the usual way.

The nucleic of humans have 22 autosomes which are responsible for body characteristics. Autosomes are numbered roughly in relation to their size. For example, chromosome 1 has approximately 2,800 genes, while chromosome 22 has approximately 750 genes. 

Genotype and Phenotype

Phenotype:

                The outward physical manifestation of the organism. These are the physical parts, the sum of the atoms, molecules, macromolecules, cells, structure, metabolism, energy utilization, tissues, organs, reflexes, and behavior; anything that is part of the observable structure, function or behavior of a living organism.

Genotype:

               the internally coded, inheritable information, carried by all living organisms. This stored information is used as a ''blueprint'' or set of instructions for building and maintaining a living creature. This instructions are found with almost all cells the (internal part) they are written in a code language (the genetic code), they are copied at the time of cell division or reproduction and are passed from one gene generation to the next ('' Inheritable''). This instructions are intimately involved with all aspects of the life of a cell or an organism.They control everything from the formation of the protein macromolecules, to the regulation of the metabolism and synthesis.

Relationship

                                     The  Genotype codes for the Phenotype

The internally coded, inheritable information, or Genotype, carried by all organism. holds the criterial instructions that are used and interpreted by the cellular machinery of the cell to produce the (''outward'', physical manifestation) or phenotype of the organism. Thus, all the physical parts, the molecules, macromolecules, cells and others structures, are built and maintained by cells following the instructions given by the genotype. As these physical structure being to act and interact with one another they can produce larger and more complex phenomena such as metabolism, energy utilization, tissues, orgasm, reflexes and behavior; anything that is part of the observable structure, function or behavior of a living organism. For example, genetics traits;

Incomplete Dominance

Incomplete dominance is a form of intermediates inheritance in which one allele for a specific trait is not completely dominant over the other allele. This results in a combined phenotype.

Examples:

In cross-pollination experiments between red and white snapdragon plants, the resulting offspring are pink. The dominant allele that produces the red color is not completely expressed over the recessive allele that produces the white color.